Teachers' guide

This page provides background information for teachers and makes suggestions on teaching and resources. Most science teachers find astronomy motivates their students. Practical work is relatively straight-forward and there are many opportunities for students to work alone on projects.

"A general history of the development of the astronomy curriculum"

Pedagogy

Astronomy is to be taught as a foundational part of the Western tradition of science. This means that it is based upon a distinct set of values (the values of science) and teachers should emphasise these in all their science teaching. It is important that students understand that science is more than a matter of opinion, culture, or inclination. Science itself entails standards that relate to evidence, experiment, logic, and openness to ideas.

Using the books and the website

Students should be able to use the Astronomy Aotearoa resources without any teacher input. They will however need access to the internet. Every student should have their own Astronomy Aotearoa Workbook and that should be the basis of their notes in a loose leaf folder. Expect the students to add things printed from the internet! Also, some of the exercises in the Workbook require the students to write on further sheets of paper.

It is reasonable for the school to provide the Astronomy Aotearoa textbook to the student and to expect the student to pay for the Astronomy Aotearoa Workbook themselves.

You can build your teaching around the Astronomy Aotearoa resources. A way to proceed with classroom teaching is to include a mix of the following:

1. Assist students to study astronomy themselves and complete the work in their Astronomy Aotearoa Workbook.
2. Provide formal lessons on basic topics.
3. Ensure students have the skills to search for information on the internet (they can begin with the Astronomy Aotearoa Website ).
4. Assist students to plan and complete observations.
5. Provide for visits to observatories.
6. Provide telescope sessions. Frequently, these involve an evening trip to an observatory.
7. Ensure the school library has a good range of modern books on astronomy, including those that relate to New Zealand. See the list below.
8. Provide assessment and moderation in accordance with the unit standards and the AMAP (currently version 2) or arrange for the students to be assessed through the online facility of the National Observatory www.carterobservatory.net
9. If you are going to assess the astronomy unit standards, ensure your school is accredited to assess the Domain Astronomy. The school's HOD Science will hold a list of current NZQA accreditations for your school. The Astronomy Domain is within the "Base Scope for Accreditation for Schools", BSAS. See the NZQA website for more information www.nzqa.govt.nz

Many students find it difficult to focus their attention on a topic of study. They are easily distracted. The approach to learning taken in the Astronomy Aotearoa resources seeks to address this problem. Accordingly, the resources:

1. Set out the prescription that is the unit standard itself.
2. Show students exactly what they have to learn to achieve success in the standard.
3. Show students exactly where they are in the unit standard as the progress.
4. Are systematic in their approach to each topic.
5. Have few distractions on each page.
6. Make students search for information in the internet.
7. Make students write notes and draw diagrams.
8. Develop an active approach to learning.
9. Repeat key concepts in different ways.
10. Take the students towards independent learning, in the sense of not being reliant on a teacher.
11. Develop basic research skills including the ability to bring together information from various sources.

When making comments on the student workbooks teachers should reward effort and initiative. It is more important that the student develops a positive attitude towards learning than that they are technically correct on any particular point. Academic rigor will come later.

There is a discussion of aspects of an online astronomy pedagogy at www.robertshaw.orcon.net.nz/elearning.html.

Unpacking the unit standards

Several teachers have expressed concern about aspects of the unit standards themselves. Accordingly, these interpretations are suggested, based on extensive discussions by teachers at SciCon and Carter conferences, and also having regard to the original intention when the unit standards were written:

1. "Demonstrate knowledge of" does not preclude "understanding" and teachers should not feel locked into the teaching of recall.
2. "Demonstrate" may be interpreted as "show".
3. "Salient" is used frequently in the standard and it has come to mean "any". If a student makes a sensible point about something, it should not be rejected on the grounds that it is not a "salient" (meaning outstanding or important) point.
4. "Narratives" means "stories". The purpose in using the word "narrative" is to emphasise that the student only has to write about science. They do not actually have to delve into the science itself. Accordingly, for example, they may write about Newton and his battles with Hooke and do not need to write about Newton's laws. This is in keeping with the broad purpose of the astronomy unit standards as indicated above.
5. The "traditional narratives" (for example, in performance indicator 2.3) have produced significant confusion. There have been discussions about the range for the narratives. For example, some teachers have been concerned that there are not myths in relation to the outer planets because they were not known in early time. A close reading of the Range for 2.3 shows that the narratives are "not limited to" myths (for example) and do specifically include "histories". Accordingly, they include narratives about Galileo, Newton, and Einstein. It was always intended that these people be included (the narratives from North Italy, for example). They were not named in the standard itself in an effort to make the standard "inclusive". It is important to remember that the Domain Astronomy comes under the heading of Science. When it says "history" it means the "history of science". The unit standard is not a subject in the humanities domains. Indeed, it is not proper for science teachers to stray into the curriculum areas of others.
6. In the exploration of space the distinction between manned and unmanned is not a sensible foundational distinction. It is far better to be positive and state the purpose of each mission and not dwell on the less than salient fact that it was unmanned.
7. "Dust" is neglected in US20622 yet it appears implicitly in US20623 (see composition, for example). An oversight that is not very important.
8. Do stories of recent, local meteorites count as "traditional narratives"? Most teachers can see little reason to exclude them. The word "traditional" means "existing in a tradition" not just "long-standing". Anything in the tradition of science or the tradition of investigation is satisfactory.
9. Now Pluto is no longer a planet, what should we do? The change in status demonstrated that the unit standard does not adequately describe bodies that are in some categories. The range needs adjusting for US20622, Element 3. However, that should not stop teachers from teaching Pluto, which interests students greatly.
10. In US20623 Element 1, the term "observational techniques" is taken by most teachers to mean the two basic types of optical telescope and radio telescopes. This relates well to US20621 Element 2 which is the Hubble Space Telescope. You need to teach the "observational techniques" section before the HST. Generally, teachers like to relate the optics to Newton and they also provide some history of the early radio telescopes.
11. The important part of US20621 Element 4 is the experiment's objectives (performance indicator 4.1). Students who do not demonstrate knowledge of the objectives are unlikely to proceed well with the following performance indicators. The achievements must be related to the objectives, although the Range for 4.4 appears to open a door to other "objectives" (confused with achievements). If this is taken literally, the achievements become downstream uses of things in some way developed as a consequence of the objectives in 4.1.
12. Teachers note an imbalance in the workload in the three astronomy standards. There are several suggestions on how to address this and they have been sent to NZQA.

The New Zealand Qualifications Authority is committed to the regular update of the unit standards and it is expected that the issues teachers raised will result in clarifications. It should be noted, however, that teachers report that the unit standards at present are working well and the adjustments required are only to improve the wording.

Teaching the standards

The astronomy unit standards can be used as an extension opportunity for students who seek more credits or who have a particular interest. In this model the year 11 science programme will not include astronomy but the school provides it through the Carter Observatory. Contact the Observatory about the costs for there are several payment options available depending on the number of students involved.

Schools that are considering offering the three astronomy unit standards for the first time often ask about the order in which the standards should be presented. It is possible to provide an integrated course that teaches the assessment requirements of the three standards in a matrix. This is not recommended simply because it confuses the assessment process. It is also desirable to report success with one standard to the students as quickly as possible. The traditional order of presentation is Solar, Galaxies, Space. However, the standards can be taught well in any order. The Carter Observatory allows its students to enter their courses in any order; however, they stipulate that a student may enrol in only one course at a time. Many teachers evidently like to provide an overview module at the start of the three standards and this generally provides a sufficient base for practical observing. Practical observing - being governed by the opportunities available - cannot sensibly be confined to the requirements of each standard in turn. Where students begin astronomy in year 9 or 10, teachers find that good opportunities for observing appear as the days and nights roll onward.

To extend the practial work

Teachers who wish to assess for credits practical work for astronomy can make use of NCEA Achievement Standard 90186, Science 1.1. This is a "Practical Science Investigation" and worth 4 credits at Level 1. There are also several unit standards that relate to investigation in science and specifically physics. School should check they have the appropriate accreditation before they assess further unit standards.

Relationship with achievement standards

The astronomy unit standards do not "overlap" with the two-credit NCEA Achievement Standard 90192 Science 1.7. (This is an official pronouncement from the Ministry of Education and NZQA.) This standard 90192 is a mix of ideas around the theme of spatial relationships.

This achievement standard is derived from Science in the New Zealand Curriculum, Learning Media, Ministry of Education, 1993, pages 118–119, in particular achievement objective 3. Aspects of astronomy will be selected from:

1. Spatial relationships within the solar system
2. Space exploration of the solar system.

In Science 1.7, spatial relationships within the solar system could involve orbits of the planets and their moons, position of the planets relative to Earth, major moons and problems related to distances between the planets.

Management and development of the astronomy standards

The Carter Observatory, as New Zealand's National Observatory, took a lead role in the development of the astronomy unit standards. This work has been paid for by the Observatory itself and been undertaken in close cooperation with the New Zealand Qualifications Authority that is the agency that holds responsibility for the standards.

Many teachers have asked that further astronomy standards be developed. There is a curriculum framework for the standards that shows how they relate to each other and the streams that are available across the levels 1, 2 and 3. Basically there are two "streams" proposed:

1. Standards for those with physics and mathematics.
2. Standards for those whose interests relate to the humanities.

Within the overall framework proposed there are some standards that are under more active development. They are:

1. Maori astronomy (level 1)
2. Traditional Pacific Navigation (Level 2 probably)
3. Cosmology (level 2, will not require mathematics)
4. Astrophysics (level 2, will require mathematics)
5. Cosmology (level 3, will require limited mathematics and physics which will probably be taught as a part of the standard)

The New Zealand Qualifications Authority is aware of the demand for further astronomy unit standards. There are however several wider issues that impact on the ability of the Authority to respond to the demand, including the debate about the relationship between unit and achievement standards, and simple resource priorities.

The Carter Observatory is shortly to lose its official status as the National Observatory of New Zealand. Parliament will repeal its Act of Parliament. Consequently, it will no longer hold any formal interest in the development of the national curriculum in astronomy. The Carter Observatory does not at present have the resources necessary to develop the astronomy curriculum further.

The development of astronomy needs to be seen within the context of the development of science education. The Ministry of Education has this responsibility and changes are afoot. Those who wish to consider the wider context for astronomy education should consult Curriculum, Learning and Effective Pedagogy: A Literature Review in Science Education and Shifting Balances .

Science teachers have made a comprehensive analysis of the astronomy Achievement and Unit Standards (some of which appears in the notes on the interpretation of the standards above). Teachers with experience of the standards who have been in contact with the Carter Observatory have made their views known to both the Ministry of Education and the New Zealand Qualifications Authority. The main direction of their advocacy is that astronomy must be related to the history of science, the values of science must be developed through the historical context and in practical work, and less time must be spent on cultural topics which science teachers feel unqualified to teach. The two-credit Achievement Standard is being taught less frequently because it is an odd collection of unrelated topics. The Achievement Standard needs to be developed along the lines of the three Unit Standards (that is to produce a comprehensive, basic astronomy course) or removed. Teachers strongly believe that astronomy should be developed in secondary schools as a matter of priority. It is expected that the Ministry of Education will address these issues in late 2007.

Regarding the development of the astronomy unit standards, NZQA (Michel Norrish), advised in July 2007:

"The review/revision of the astronomy unit standards will be included in the list of possible projects for consideration for the 2007-8 financial year that begins in July.

When the review/revision of the astronomy standards will take place cannot be predicted at this stage, but any decision to proceed will be communicated widely. In the meantime, any comments about the astronomy unit standards are welcome to michel.norrish@nzqa.govt.nz.

The unit standards show an "expiry date" of December 2007. It is possible that the review/revision will not occur before this date, but the unit standards will continue to be registered on the NQF, and they will continue to be available on the NZQA website.

In short, they can continue to be used. There are quite a few unit standards currently that show a past "expiry date", and we will need to prioritise the review/revision of all such standards. "

Recent achievement standard developments

Teachers have discussed a recently released (May 2007) draft of the Achievement Standard 1.7,AS90192. They welcome the development of the science curriculum. The title is "Describe aspects of astronomy" and the draft reads as follows:

"Explanatory Notes

1 This achievement standard is derived from Science in the New Zealand Curriculum, Learning Media, Ministry of Education, 1993, p. 118–119, in particular achievement objective 3; and Pūtaiao i roto i te Marautanga o Aotearoa, Learning Media, Ministry of Education, 1996, ‘Ō Ahupūngao: Te Waonui’, WP 6.1, p. 46–47.

2 Aspects of astronomy will be selected from:
• Different parts of the solar system
• Spatial relationships within the solar system

3 Different parts of the solar system could include but is not limited to the: - Sun - inner planets - gas giants - major moons

4 Spatial relationships within the solar system could involve but are not limited to: - orbits of the planets around the Sun - orbits of the major moons around their planets - the relationships of the Sun and/or the Moon to Earth

5 Evidence can be gained from but not limited to one or any combination of: - a written test - a written report - a poster - a power point - an oral presentation - conferencing - recorded observations

6 Terms:

a. Describe requires the student to recognise, name, draw, give characteristics of or an account of different parts of the solar system and spatial relationships within the solar system.

b. Explain requires the student to link different parts of the solar system with spatial relationships within the solar system.

c. Discuss means integrate relevant parts of the solar system with spatial relationships within the solar system. and may involve students in justifying, relating, evaluating, comparing, contrasting and analysing. "

The May 2007 draft Achievement Standard 1.7,AS90192, says "This achievement standard involves describing aspects of astronomy". It is correct in this, it is indeed aspects of astronomy. It does not include the controversial "myths" that are problematic in the unit standard 20622. Teachers noticed that for all the topics it says they "could involve but are not limited to" .... The topics all relate to the Solar System Unit Standard 20622 (meaning, there is nothing about galaxies or space).

The draft confines itself to "different parts" of the solar system. There is nothing about the evolution, or development, or functioning of objects. Nor is there anything that relates the study of objects to their history, human history, scientific values or methodology, or the philosophy of science (unless you make much of small aspects of the 1993 science curriculum statement which is still the foundation of our national science curriculum, although it is under active development). There is a requirement for assessment on the topic of spatial relationships.

Teachers say it is difficult to see how this two-credit event can be sensibly taught within a coherent school science programme. Most teachers report that they prefer the comprehensiveness and coherency provided by the three unit standards (even if they only teach and assess one or two of them). Some teachers report that unit standards are being progressively devalued in the eyes of some students and parents. This is presumably exacerbated by the new emphasis on merit grades which are not available for the vast majority of unit standards. Accordingly, the choice for teachers who wish to offer their students astronomy at the moment is to have the best curriculum (unit standards) but insufficient recognition for their students, or to have an inadequate curriculum that produces status to the extent of two credits with merit. This situation may reflect a profound debate that is within our schooling system at present. On the one hand there are teachers who believe that science teaching needs to be founded upon what they see as the traditional disciplines of science. Others enjoy the opportunity that NCEA provides for them to "mix and match" units being guided by the interests of their students. Both have legitimate points to make. It is usually the better qualified science teachers and the university teachers who emphasise the needs of the discipline and the needs of the country. The others see the needs of students who struggle to make sense of it all, and they argue for "relevance" for those students. So far as the astronomy community is concerned, most would be in the first camp.

On 11 June 2007, after an officials' meeting between the Ministry of Education and the New Zealand Qualifications Authority, it was announced that the new draft AS90192 would not proceed for two reasons. First, the consultation with teachers had shown that they wish to continue with the geology part that is in the existing AS, and second there is a general policy that says only minor changes will be made to existing standards pending decisions on the new national curriculum statement. Hence, it is highly unlikely that the astronomy AS 90192 will be altered before 2009.

Assessment resources

Most schools that offer their students the astronomy standards at the moment take advantage of the assessment and moderation service that is a part of the courses taught online by the Carter Observatory.

For those schools that wish to teach, assess, and moderate the astronomy standards themselves a good place to start is with the Pearson Astronomy Aotearoa resources. These materials further define the curriculum beyond what is in the unit standard itself. Be aware, however, that this is just one interpretation of the standards and there is always room for discussion on the interpretation of standards. The Astronomy Aotearoa interpretation and that in the Carter Observatory courses is the same, because they were developed largely by the same people.

Schools should ensure that they have the proper accreditation from the New Zealand Qualifications Authority to assess and moderate the astronomy standards before they offer them to students. The Head of Science in each school will hold information on the schools base accreditation and any other accreditations held. It is a relatively straight-forward matter for schools to obtain accreditation for astronomy, but it can take time for NZQA to process the application. It is expected that schools seeking this accreditation will have appropriately trained staff. This means staff with a science degree and training in assessment and moderation techniques.

At present there is no item bank for the assessment of astronomy standards. Several teachers have expressed interest in the development of assessment questions and their associated marking schedules. It is possible the Carter Observatory will facilitate teacher in-service courses to produce such resources.

The National Observatory provides teacher in-service days that address both teaching methods and subject matter. Astronomy is a rapidly advancing field and most teachers appreciate an account of significant developments. Although most New Zealand science teachers do not have astronomy in their degrees, they find it a rewarding subject to teach. For more information contact Robert Shaw at the National Observatory of New Zealand.

Practical astronomy

Practical astronomy has an important place in the science curriculum. However, you should note that the astronomy unit standards are designed to be taught without any requirement for practical work. There is no assessment that requires anything beyond what can be provided in text either in books or on the internet. This is a deliberate part of the design of the standards to make them as widely available as possible.

However, practical work is not precluded by the standards. You can include the assessment of practical work in the assessment of the unit standards. Practical work should be seen as evidence of achievement and moderated in the normal way.

Astronomy is much easier to teach when the students are reporting on their observations of the evening sky. Classroom teachers will encourage their students to study the sky at night. But, be very specific in what it is that they are to look for each night. Set target observations. Generally the early targets include:

1. The Milky Way
2. The Southern Cross and the pointers
3. The false cross (about 15 degrees away from the Southern Cross)
4. Achernar (three hand lengths from the Southern Cross)
5. South Celestial Pole (mid-way between the Southern Cross and Achernar)
6. Orion (summer)
7. Scorpius (winter) and the red Antares (Rehua)

Students are delighted to discover that they can see Venus and Jupiter. The best way to begin their search for planets is by explaining The Plane of the Ecliptic. When our solar system formed it it began to spin in space and ended up forming a disc of planets around the Sun. Hence, all the planets are on the same disc or plane. In New Zealand our view from the Earth rotates on a tilted axis. So when we view the Sun it rises in the East and follows an arc across the northern sky, to set in the west. This path is called the path of the ecliptic, more accurately the Plane of the Ecliptic.

At night when you look for planets, look where the Sun tracks. Widen the path by three hand spans and that is the belt in which to look.

For more information on practical work see www.astronomyaotearoa.net/practical.html New Zealand students are fortunate that the Royal Astronomical Society website www.rasnz.org.nz provides specific information on the night sky from New Zealand, month-by-month. There are clear lists of the planets and other objects that you can expect to see, along with instructions on how to proceed.

It is also helpful to arrange a visit to a planetarium, or have one visit your school.

Astronomy offers an important opportunity to lead students to a reasonable understanding of what science is in itself. A part of this is the notion that observations are a foundational part of science. Observations can be introduced in two categories: those that are discoveries; and those that are made to test out theories (hypotheses). Remember, all science "terminates" in human observation. When a student reads a meter they are making an observation. Their senses are being extended by the meter, but they are still using their basic senses and making an observation by looking.

Accordingly, the Astronomy Aotearoa resources always suggest that the student becomes clear on the target of their observations before they set foot outside. Two lists of things to observe are provided. The first is a basic list for all beginner students. The second, Messier's Catalogue, is an established list that is well understood by all astronomers. In the step from the basic to the Messier list the student demonstrates significant development.

The other aspect of using lists is that they introduce the student to systematic investigation. It is essential that the teacher leads the student through the right steps, otherwise the work does not display the virtues of science. There is to be no casual looking.

The vital steps for the student are:

1. To base yourself on a list (in effect a theory of what is worth seeing)
2. Complete the research needed before you seek the object in the sky
3. Accept the intrinsic reward in seeing the object
4. Record what was seen and when it was seen.

Having introduced observation, as indicated above, it is important to stress that observation is the result of questioning - this was at the heart of the advance made by Newton. The scientist questions before looking. Incidentally, most students find Newton's experiments fascinating and some are easy to replicate. For example, those with prisms and lenses.

Pearson Education New Zealand
- media statement, 18 September, 2007

New Zealand’s First Textbook on Astronomy and Space

Pearson Education New Zealand announces the first New Zealand text book on astronomy and space for secondary school students. The book is Astronomy Aotearoa by Porirua City author Robert Shaw.

The Hon Luamanuvao Winnie Laban formally launched the book on the 17 September 2007. Minister Laban said “this book will capture the interest and imagination of readers, and hopefully inspire them to continue studying science”.

“More young New Zealanders – and especially more young Māori and Pasifika New Zealanders – need to consider a career in science in order for our country to compete and thrive in the global economy of the 21st Century” said Ms Laban.

Lewis Moeau spoke at the book launch on behalf of the Minister of Maori Affairs.

The book, Astronomy Aotearoa, teaches the new curriculum in astronomy and space exploration to secondary school students. This curriculum is in three unit standards and provides a total of 12 credits at NCEA level 1. Pearson Education New Zealand produced the book in cooperation with the Carter Observatory which was important in establishing the new school curriculum along with science teachers from throughout New Zealand.

The book begins by considering the students’ personal relationship to the stars and the planets. It challenges them to see themselves as insignificant in the vastness of space, yet significant in themselves. It then considers the role of astronomy in the history of the Pacific Ocean peoples including the Maori. Maori text was contributed by Anaru Reedy of Te Wananga O Aotearoa. Mr Reedy is a student in the ancient Maaori art of wayfinding without instruments, and specialises in the art of sailing contemporary waka ama, and waka hourua. Mr Reedy said the book introduces students to “an aspect of Maori culture that inspires many of our young people”. There is a section on the voyages of exploration of Asian and Pacific people and the colonisation of Pacific Islands including Aotearoa New Zealand.

The book teaches the history of Western Science. There is emphasis on leading figures such as Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein. Scientists appear as people along with an introduction to their theories. In all cases the book seeks to make science accessible to students of all abilities.

The book features the work of many New Zealand photographers including Wellingtonian Paul Moss. Mr Moss said many amateur photographers watch the sky and take unique photographs. “It is wonderful to see their work in print.”

Professional astronomers from Canterbury and Auckland universities feature, along with amateur astronomers who have made an important contribution to astronomy. Professors John Hearnshaw (Canterbury) and Phil Yock (Auckland) are prominent as the book sets out New Zealand’s contribution to science administration and astronomical research.

Of particular importance is the research of those in the MOA project, which detects planets outside of our solar system. New Zealanders have a leading role in this work that is relevant to humankind’s effort to detect intelligent life on other planets.

Pearson Education commissioning editor, Ken Harrop, said his company had a strong presence in mathematics education and Astronomy Aotearoa would strengthen its products in basic science. “We see these areas of the curriculum as vital for New Zealand students and the economic development of our country”, he said. Mr Harrop paid tribute to the astronomers and photographers who had supported the project. “There is a vast wealth of material available for such a book, particularly on the internet, and our design experts have been faced with the happy task of selecting the most dramatic and instructive items.”

He acknowledged the work of the author, Robert Shaw. “Robert was a physics teacher with a particular interest in astronomy. He took a leading part in the development of the new curriculum standards. Now he has completed that work by providing an interpretation of those standards that will guide science teachers for many years to come. We are delighted to have him as one of our authors.”

Aotea College principal Julia Davidson said the work would be important in the teaching of science throughout New Zealand. She said it was a “wonderful resource” that addressed a particular need in schools.

Minister Luamanuvao Winnie Laban also congratulated those involved. She said “I’d like to acknowledge Robert Shaw, and congratulate him on this wonderful book. “I’d also like to thank Robert for his work in developing those unit standards when he was a manager of the Distance Education Unit and a member of the Carter Observatory Board” she added.

end

Library books

The following is a basic list, particularly of New Zealand material, that should be in every secondary school library.

The most basic publications of all for New Zealand schools are the book by Vicki Hyde and a subscription to Stardome's yearbook. Best's works are all on the internet.

Zeilik's book is a comprehensive textbook that is useful as a teacher reference. Christianson's book on Newton is the best for students, and McEvoy & Zarate provide an great introduction to relativity and the cosmology that comes from relativity. Strathern's "Big Idea" books are short and exceptionally clear. His introduction to calculus in the Newton book is very helpful. Einstein's book on relativity is in short sections and develops arguments well. Students will be challenged, but actually reading any of his work is worthwhile. Toulmin's books and Westfall are for senior students.

Ackroyd, Peter. (2006). Isaac Newton: Brief Lives. London: Chatto & Windus.
Bassett, Bruce, and Edney, Ralph. (2002). Introducing Relativity. Cambridge: Icon Books UK.
Best, E. (1986). The astronomical knowledge of the Maori: genuine and empirical: including data concerning their systems of astrogeny, astrolatry, and natural astrology, with notes on certain other natural phenomena (New ed.). Wellington: Government Printer.
Burl, A. (1983). Prehistoric astronomy and ritual. Aylesbury, Bucks, UK.: Shire Publications.
Catley, Christine Cole. (2006). Bright Star: Beatrice Hill Tinsley Astronomer. Auckland: Cape Catley.
Christianson, Gale E. (1996) Isasc Newton and the Scientific Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Corbett, Bill. (2003). A simple guide to Telescopes, Spotting Scopes, and Binoculars. New York: Amphoto Books
Doughty, N. A., Shane, C. D., & Wood, F. B. (1972). Canterbury sky atlas (Australis): a Southern extension of the Lick
Drake, Stillman. (2001). Galileo: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Einstein, Albert. Relativity: The Special and the General Theory. (1961) New York: Random House.
Ellyard, David and Tirion, Wil. (2001). The Southern Sky Guide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fletcher, L. (1986). Southern Sky. Auckland: Longman Paul.
Freedman, R. A., & Kaufmann, W. J. (2005). Universe. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Hakaraia, L. (2004). Matariki: the Maori New Year. Auckland: Reed.
Hyde, V. (2003). Night skies above New Zealand. Auckland: New Holland.
Hawking, Stephen. (2004) A Brief History of Time - Updated and Expanded. New York: Bantam.
Hawking, Stephen William. (2001) The Universe in a Nutshell. New York: Bantam.
Jones, Terry Jay and Hanson, Jeanne K. (2007). Astronomy for the Utterly Confused. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Heifetz, Milton D and Tirion, Wil. (2000). A walk through the Southern Sky: A Guide to Stars and Constellations and the Legends. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Leather, K., & Hall, R. (2004). Work of the gods: tatai arorangi, Maori astronomy. Paraparaumu, N.Z.: Viking Sevenseas NZ.
Moore, P. (1994). Stars of the southern skies. Auckland: Bateman.
Maran, Stephen P. (2005) Astronomy for Dummies. Indianapolis: Wiley.
McEvoy, J.P. and Zarate, Oscar. (2002). Introducing Stephen Hawking. Cambridge: Icon Books UK.
Orchiston, D. W. (1998). Nautical astronomy in New Zealand: the voyages of James Cook. Wellington: Carter Observatory.
Rankin, W. (1993). Newton for Beginners. St Leonards, NSW: Allen and Unwin.
Redpath, Ian and Tirion, Wil. (2001) Stars and Planets. Princeton Field Guide.
Reed, A.W. (2001) Maori Myth and Legend. Wellington: Reed New Zealand.
Sidgwick, J. B., & Muirden, J. (1982). Observational astronomy for amateurs. Hillside, N.J.: Enslow.
Stardome Observatory. New Zealand astronomical yearbook. Auckland: Stardome Observatory (subscription).
Strathern, Paul. (1997). The Big Idea: Einstein and Relativity. New York: Doubleday.
Strathern, Paul. (1998). The Big Idea: Newton and Gravity. New York: Doubleday.
Taylor, I. (2003). Galileo: a beginner's guide. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Taylor, Paul. (2005). Naked Eye Wonders: A short guide to the Stars as seen from Aotearoa New Zealand. Auckland: Starman Productions.
Thomsen, I. L. (1961). Southern Hemisphere stars. Wellington: A. H. & A. W. Reed.
Toulmin, S. E. (1982). The return to cosmology : postmodern science and the theology of nature. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Toulmin, S. E., & Goodfield, J. (1962). The fabric of the heavens: the development of astronomy and dynamics. New York: Harper.
Westfall, Richard. (1994). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wyatt, P. (1996). Astronomy for the southern hemisphere. Cambridge-New York: Cambridge University Press.
Zeilik, Michael. (2002) Astronomy: The Evolving Universe. Cambridge University Press.

Robert Shaw BSc MPhil(Hons) (Auck) DipTchg (NZ)

Comments and suggestions from students and teachers are welcome :
robert.shaw@nationalobservatory.net

Download the introduction to teaching astronomy that is available on request to groups of teachers. Download the PowerPoint >